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STRUCTURE OF CALIFORNIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( October 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism " (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). Here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Californium (Cf) is a chemical element that is mainly produced synthetically, but trace quantities are found in nature from neutron capture by uranium atoms. It has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was Cf-245 in 1950. There are 20 known radioisotopes ranging from Cf-237 to Cf-256 and one nuclear isomer, Cf-249m. The longest-lived isotope is Cf-251 with a half-life of 900 years. NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF THE LONG-LIVED Cf-251 WITH S = +1/2 '' 'It is well well-known that the structure of lead-164 (core) of high symmetry consists of 8 horizontal planes and 2 horizontal lines providing 44 blank positions for receiving extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron in order to construct the stable Pb-208. (See the fourth figure of lead at the bottom of the page). Similarly the structure of Cf-196 (core) with 98 protons and 98 neutrons (even number) consists of 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins, including four additional deuterons with S = +2 and S = -2 which exist over and under the structure of 8 horizontal planes, forming the up horizontal line (+UHL) and a down horizontal line (-DHL). So all these nucleons of the 8 horizontal planes and the +UHL and the -DHL give S = 0 . ' ' In general, the structure of Cf-196 (core) has S =0 and is similar to the structure of Pb-164, because the two additional vertical systems of p97n97 and p98n98 with S = 0 make symmetrical vertical rectangles. For example all the nuclides with even number of extra neutrons existing from Cf-238 to Cf-256 with S=0 are based on the Cf-196 with S =0. Also the Cf-243 with S = +1/2 and the long-lived Cf-251 of S =+1/2 are based on the same structure of Cf-196 (core) with S = 0. Under this condition the long-lived Cf-251 of 55 extra neutrons has 28 extra neutrons of positive spins and 27 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is ' 'S = 0 + 28(+1/2) + 27(-1/2) = +1/2 ' 'On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the Cf-196 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' 'NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF Cf-237, Cf-239, Cf-245, Cf-247, Cf-253 AND Cf-255 ' After a careful analysis I found that the structures of such unstable nuclides with odd number of extra neutrons are based on another structure of the Cf-196 (core) having S = +2. In this case the one deuteron of the down horizontal line (-DHL), like the line of lead, changes the spin from S = -1 to S = +1 giving S = +2, because it moves to the up horizontal line (+UHL) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the up horizontal line. For example the Cf-255 with S = +7/2 of 59 extra neutrons has 31 extra neutrons of positive spins and 28 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +2 + 31(+1/2) + 28(-1/2) = +7/2 Here the 55 extra neutrons fill all the 55 blank positions but the pp repulsions of long range ( large number) always overcome such pn bonds of short range. Whereas the 4 extra neutrons, which are more than those of Cf-251, (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay ' ' 'NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF THE Cf-241 AND Cf-249 ' After a careful analysis the structures of these unstable nuclides are based on another structure of Cf-196 (core) having S = -4 . In this case the two deuterons of +UHL change their spin from S =+2 to S =-2 because they move to -DHL for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the down horizontal line. For example the Cf-249 with S = -9/2 of 53 extra neutrons, has 26 extra neutrons of positive spins and 27 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -4 +26(+1/2) + 27(-1/2) = -9/2 Here the 53 extra neutrons fill the 53 blank positions but the pp repulsions (large number) of long range always overcome such pn bonds of short range. Category:Fundamental physics concepts